Denmark has begun storage of CO2 in the subsoil of the North Sea, according to INEOS, the lead partner in Project Greensand, described as the world’s first cross-border carbon capture and storage scheme (CCS).

According to a 10 September announcement, the 23 partners behind the project have now submitted the final report from the pilot project, which has aimed to develop, test and demonstrate safe and efficient storage of CO2 in the North Sea subsurface.

The group said the thorough technical verification confirms that the stored CO2 remains safely and permanently in the closed Nini West reservoir 1,800 metres below the North Sea seabed, as expected. This part of the work was carried out by independent provider of risk, verification and standardization services, DNV.

“We now have documentation that we have a well-functioning storage for CO2 in the North Sea subsoil, where large amounts of CO2 that would otherwise have been emitted into the atmosphere can be safely and permanently stored. We can see that the stored CO2 behaves as expected in the reservoir 1,800 metres below the seabed. That confidence gives us a solid foundation to take the next steps that will be crucial for CCS in Denmark”, said Mads Gade, Country Manager at INEOS Denmark and Commercial Director at INEOS Energy, the leading partner behind Project Greensand.

“Outstanding work” from all 23 partners
Project Greensand demonstrated that captured CO2 can be transported across borders and stored offshore to mitigate climate change. This was marked by the parties behind the consortium at the event First Carbon Storage on 8 March 2023 in Esbjerg, where Denmark’s King Frederik gave the signal to begin the CO2-storage operation,

It was also marked with a video speech by President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen and speech by Minister for Climate, Energy and Utilities, Lars Aagaard.

“We are very proud that we are the first in the world to succeed in developing, testing and demonstrating a well-functioning value chain for safe and efficient capture, transport and storage of CO2 across national borders with the aim of mitigating climate change. This is an important step on the way to meeting Denmark’s and the EU’s climate ambitions, and each of the 23 partners has done an outstanding job. I am impressed by how the task has been solved across many professional groups, which has made this phase of Project Greensand come together”, says Mads Gade.

The intensive work in the EUDP-supported project has also meant that a large group of Danish and international companies have gained valuable experience in the work with capture, transport and storage of CO2, and now have better conditions to play a role in a future CCS market in Europe.

Standing on the shoulders of an earlier project in Greensand
With a completed and verified pilot phase, the way has been paved for the development of CCS in Denmark. The lead partner in Project Greensand, INEOS, has already applied for approval on behalf of licence partners Wintershall Dea (now Harbour Energy) and Nordsøfonden for Denmark’s first large-scale CO2 storage facility, and is now working hard to start CO2 storage in the North Sea by the end of 2025 or the beginning of 2026. The ambition is that up to 400,000 tonnes of CO2 will be stored per year, while the plan is to store up to 8 million tonnes of CO2 per year in the area under the North Sea’s seabed from 2030.

At the same time, work is also underway to investigate whether it is possible and safe to store CO2 underground on land in Denmark, and earlier this year, the Minister for Climate, Energy and Utilities awarded INEOS, Wintershall Dea (Harbour Energy) and Nordsøfonden an exploration licence for an area of the Danish subsurface in Jutland in the Gassum reservoir. The experience from Greensand will be included in the work to demonstrate safe storage also on land.

“We emphasised that Denmark has moved to the forefront of CCS in the world when we stored the first CO2 in the North Sea. Now we are in the process of investigating how to take the next step, and here we stand on the shoulders of the invaluable experience from Project Greensand’s pilot. We are keen to continue this momentum with an ambition that Greensand will be the first CO2 storage facility in operation in the EU, and we are now awaiting the Danish authorities’ approval of a permanent storage. This is an important step, because if Denmark takes just 5% of a future CCS market in Europe, it could mean up to 9,000 jobs, with an economic potential of DKK 50 billion. At the same time, we can support the EU’s objectives, because we have all the prerequisites to create a new industry that is part of the solution to the challenges of the climate”.

The Scottish Government announced a new Green Industrial Strategy on 11 September.

It was unveiled by Deputy First Minister Kate Forbes and colleagues during a visit to Flowcopter, a company based near Edinburgh which is developing drones that can be used in the offshore wind sector.

She said: “This Green Industrial Strategy spells out where we believe the greatest opportunities lie, and where we will focus our attention and resources.

“It provides certainty for businesses – both at home and abroad – by demonstrating where and how we will work to reduce barriers to investment and, where appropriate, share risk and reward.”

The document pinpoints five priority areas: maximising Scotland’s wind economy, growing the hydrogen sector, developing the carbon capture, utilisation and storage sector, supporting green economy professional and financial services, and attracting clean energy intensive industries such as datacentres.

Other specific actions will include: hosting a Global Offshore Wind Investment Forum next Spring, working with the sector to develop hubs of hydrogen production and demand and working with public and private partners to drive investment in key projects.

Responding, Claire Mack, Chief Executive of Scottish Renewables, said:

“Renewable energy is Scotland’s greatest economic opportunity and the Green Industrial Strategy, which has been widely welcomed by industry, will provide a real boost for those committed to delivering on our net-zero ambitions.

“We have worked closely with the Scottish Government on this strategy and are pleased that it has promised to drive forward the full potential for public and private investment in essential infrastructure, with plans to secure the manufacturing facilities Scotland needs to maintain its position as a world leader in clean power.

“We have been clear that the Scottish Government must show a real commitment to supporting companies across the supply chain and we welcome the energy supply chain package of support announced today.

“Scottish Renewables has repeatedly highlighted the need for a robust planning and consenting system alongside a commitment to invest in green skills which has been reflected in the strategy.

“The Scottish Government must now outline how the Green Industrial strategy will strategically align with the anticipated Energy Strategy and Just Transition Plan to fully realise the vast opportunities of renewable energy across all sectors including offshore wind, low carbon heat and green hydrogen.

“The renewable energy industry first called for a Green Industrial Strategy more than two years ago and it is delivery that counts. The Scottish Government must hold itself accountable for what has been announced today and demonstrate confidence that it can deliver Scotland’s clean power future.”

AQE 2024, the Air Quality and Emissions show will take place on 9 and 10 October at the NEC in Birmingham, with the most exhibitors and most expansive conference program of any AQE or MCERTS event since 2002, as the organizers explain.

The health effects of air pollution, combined with the climate effects of greenhouse gases, are increasing public, media and political attention on the measurement of air quality and emissions. At the same time, technological advances are helping to find new insights into pollution mitigation, and AQE will provide attendees with the latest information on the regulations, standards, methods and technologies that can help in the fight against air pollution and climate change.

AQE 2024 has been designed to meet the needs of anyone involved with air quality and emissions reduction. This includes, for example, regulators, local authorities, consultants, instrumentation engineers, laboratory staff, process operators, engine and powertrain developers, researchers and interested stakeholders such as clean air campaigners.

With over 200 of the industry’s leading technology and service providers gathered in one place, there will no better opportunity to learn about the latest developments, discuss environmental monitoring challenges, and compare products through face-to-face interaction with air quality and emissions experts. Beyond the exhibition floor, the conference schedule is fully packed with over 100 hours of free technical workshops and presentations, delivered by regulators, researchers, and industry experts. Visitors will be provided with access to a wide range of highly topical presentations, covering issues such as ambient air quality monitoring – regulations and the latest technological innovations, including low-cost sensors, mobile sensors and the utilisation of cellular communications networks to create very large monitoring networks. There will also be parallel sessions on emissions monitoring, addressing measurement quality and the latest developments in standards, methods and techniques. In addition, attendees will be able to choose from further parallel sessions covering the monitoring of methane, hydrogen and carbon capture and storage.

The AQE website www.ilmexhibitions.com/aqeshow provides comprehensive details on the event, as well as a link to register free of charge. Visitors to AQE 2024 will also have access to WWEM 2024, the water, wastewater and environmental monitoring event, which will be co-located at the NEC.

Planting trees may worsen, not improve, New York City air, says a new study, since interactions with man-made pollutants can create ozone.

New York City is planting tens of thousands of trees each year. They provide shade, lower surface temperatures by releasing moisture, absorb a surprising amount of airborne carbon, scrub out soot and other floating pollutants, and provide wildlife habitat along with just plain beauty. What could go wrong?

Something could go wrong, according to a new study. Oaks and sweetgums, which currently account for a majority of the city’s trees, produce huge amounts of volatile compounds called isoprenes. Harmless by themselves, isoprenes interact rapidly with polluting nitrogen oxides emitted by vehicles, buildings and industry to form ground-level ozone―a prime factor in many respiratory ailments, especially chronic bronchitis and asthma.

The research, carried out at the Columbia Climate School’s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and other institutions, appeared to find that if the city maintains past species patterns in new plantings, isoprene production in Manhattan in coming decades will go up by about 140%, and resulting summer ozone levels by as much as 30%. In Queens, which has the most room of any borough to support more trees, isoprene production could quadruple, with corresponding increases in peak ozone; the other boroughs are somewhere in between. The study was published in Environmental Science & Technology.

“We’re all for planting more trees. They bring so many good things,” said study coauthor Róisín Commane, an atmospheric chemist at Lamont-Doherty. “But if we’re not careful, we could make air quality worse.”

“There is no reason to think that trees don’t play a role in what’s in the air,” said lead author Dandan Wei, who did the research as a postdoctoral scientist at Lamont-Doherty. “We just didn’t have the tools before this to understand this particular aspect.”

The leaves of some tree species emit isoprene as a byproduct of photosynthesis, though no one is quite sure why. With oaks, emissions tend to increase exponentially with heat, at least until air temperatures reach the high 90s. Some scientists think this helps keep leaf tissues from drooping and losing their ability to photosynthesize as it gets hotter. Emissions of these and other volatile compounds by trees may also have something to do with attracting pollinating insects. For whatever reason, oaks and sweetgums are especially prolific; oaks emit some 800 times more isoprene than low emitters like maples or London planes. (Fun fact: the oak-rich Blue Ridge Mountains get their bluish tinge when seen from afar due to vast amounts of isoprene and other volatile compounds reacting indirectly with water to form tiny floating droplets.)

New York City is home to some seven million trees, covering 22% of the surface, according to the city Parks Department. Parks and forests contain some five million, of which more than half are oaks of various kinds and sweetgums (37% and 17% respectively). On the streets, (close to 700,000 trees at last count), oaks comprise 18% and sweetgums just a small number. London planes are the most common street trees, comprising a third. Some 130 other species account for the rest.

The authors of the study analyzed newly available satellite imagery showing the city’s tree canopy in 30-by-30-meter grids, and combining it with 2016 and 2018 Parks Department censuses of tree species. This was combined with data from scientists including study coauthor Andrew Reinmann, an environmental ecologist who does lab experiments on tree leaves to measure their isoprene production under different conditions. The researchers scaled up the lab data to the city’s actual tree coverage, and modeled how trees interact with tailpipe and building emissions of NOx.

They found that emissions from trees play a controlling role in the formation of ozone on hot summer days, when levels routinely exceed the federal safety levels of 70 ppb. Levels sometimes now reach 100 ppb; the addition of new trees could eventually drive it up even further, says the study.

New York has made some headway at reducing nitrogen oxides in recent years, but the pace has been agonizingly slow. The study says that at current rates of 2% to 5% a year, it would take 30 to 80 years for the city to reduce emissions by a factor of five―the level at which emissions from trees would no long play a role in ozone formation.

No quick fix appears to be imminent. In June, New York Gov. Kathy Hochul canceled a plan decades in the making to reduce vehicle traffic by imposing congestion pricing in Manhattan. Meanwhile, the City Council passed a 2023 resolution calling for an increase in tree-canopy coverage from its current 22% to at least 30% by 2035. This would require 250,000 new trees.

A 2018 study carried out by Parks Department researchers concluded that city trees emit more than 800 tons of volatile compounds each year, including isoprene. But both the researchers of this study and the Parks Department have preferred to position blame with vehicle engines rather than trees.

The department has already reduced the proportion of oaks it plants in favor of a more diverse mix―but more because of a need to diversify species rather than because of the isoprene question.

“We’re not going to go cutting down any big old oaks,” and neither will the department completely stop planting new ones, said Auyeung. “You have to think about what you would lose if you do that.” Oaks are keystone species, she pointed out, providing food and habitat for native insects, birds and mammals.

The Royal Air Force has used a blend of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) with normal jet fuel on routine operations for the first time.

Aircraft including Typhoon and Poseidon submarine hunters, operating from RAF Lossiemouth in Scotland, have been using a blend of conventional and SAF in an apparent first for the air force.

During November 2023 to February 2024 four million litres of blended SAF were delivered to the Royal Air Force through a contract with World Fuel Services. A further five million one hundred and fifty thousand litres of fuel are being delivered over the period July to October 2024.

The fuel is used to power aircraft operating from Lossiemouth in Morayshire, northern Scotland. RAF Lossiemouth is one of the UK’s busiest RAF stations and is home to Typhoon aircraft who are ready to deploy 24/7, 365 as part of the UK’s Quick Reaction Alert – keeping Britain secure.

Sustainable fuel sources include hydrogenated fats and oils, wood waste, alcohols, sugars, household waste, biomass and algae.

Aviation currently accounts for nearly two thirds of fuel used across defence.

In 2020, the MoD updated aviation fuel standards to allow up to 50% sustainable sources to be used in fuel mixes for defence aircraft. The RAF has been trialling different types of fuel since then. In November 2021, an RAF pilot flew a microlight aircraft powered by synthetic fuel created from air and water, described as a world-first. In Spring 2022, a drone was flown on synthetic kerosene made by genetically modified bacteria. The RAF has also tested an electric aircraft flown at RAF Cranwell.

In November 2022, an RAF Voyager trialled the use of 100% SAF, flying for 90-minutes from RAF Brize Norton, said to be a world first for a wide-bodied military aircraft, a joint endeavour between the RAF, DE&S and industry partners Airbus, AirTanker and Rolls-Royce, with the fuel supplied by Air bp.

In 2023, the Royal Air Force used SAF to achieve the first SAF blend air-to-air refuelling of a Typhoon and C-130 Hercules aircraft. This was followed by the RAF’s display typhoon being powered on blended SAF at this year’s Royal International Air Tattoo, the first time this aircraft has displayed to the public on this fuel.

How does a fly find its way to that mouldy banana lying concealed in a kitchen cupboard? A question of that order was posed by researchers at the University of Nevada. The answer seemingly offers clues as to how robotic systems might be trained to find the source of chemical leaks or odours, as explained in a study published in the journal Current Biology.

“We don’t currently have robotic systems to track odour or chemical plumes,” said co-author Professor Floris van Breugel. “We don’t know how to efficiently find the source of a wind-borne chemical. But insects are remarkably good at tracking chemical plumes, and if we really understood how they do it, maybe we could train inexpensive drones to use a similar process to find the source of chemicals and chemical leaks.”

A fundamental challenge in understanding how insects track chemical plumes is that wind and odours can’t be independently manipulated.

To address this challenge, van Breugel and co-author S. David Stupski used a new approach that makes it possible to remotely control neurons—specifically those associated with smell— on the antennae of flying fruit flies by genetically introducing light-sensitive proteins, an approach called optogenetics. These experiments, part of a $450,000 project funded through the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, made it possible to give flies identical virtual smell experiences in different wind conditions.

What van Breugel and Stupski wanted to know: how do flies find an odour when there’s no wind to carry it? This is, after all, likely the wind experience of a fly looking for a banana in your kitchen. The answer is in the Current Biology article, “Wind Gates Olfaction Driven Search States in Free Flight.” The print version will appear in the Sept. 9 issue.

Flies use environmental cues to detect and respond to air currents and wind direction to find their food sources, according to van Breugel. In the presence of wind, those cues trigger an automatic “cast and surge” behavior, in which the fly surges into the wind after encountering a chemical plume (indicating food) and then casts — moves side to side — when it loses the scent. Cast-and-surge behavior long has been understood by scientists but, according to van Breugel, it was fundamentally unknown how insects searched for a scent in still air.

Through their work, van Breugel and Stupski uncovered another automatic behavior: sink and circle, which involves lowering altitude and making repetitive, rapid turns in a consistent direction. Flies perform this innate movement consistently and repetitively, even more so than cast-and-surge behavior.

According to van Breugel, the most exciting aspect of this discovery is that it shows flying flies are clearly able to assess the conditions of the wind—its presence, and direction—before deploying a strategy that works well under these conditions. The fact that they can do this is actually quite surprising—can you tell if there is a gentle breeze if you stick your head out of the window of a moving car? Flies aren’t just reacting to an odour with the same preprogrammed response every time like a simple robot, they are responding in context-appropriate manner. This knowledge potentially could be applied to train more sophisticated algorithms for scent-detecting drones to find the source of chemical leaks.

Researchers at the University of Sheffield are exploring new exhaust aftertreatment systems for heavy-duty engines capable of running on clean, zero-carbon fuels such as ammonia. This four-year project is funded by an EPSRC grant and supported by the industrial partner Eminox. The project is led by Bill Nimmo, Professor of Energy Engineering and Sustainability, with PhD student Madhumitha Rajendran.

Background
The decarbonisation of transport represents a vitally important component of global initiatives to minimise the impacts of climate change. However, whilst the electrification of light vehicles is a logical way forward, heavy vehicles used in the rail, marine and construction sectors have high torque requirements that are unsuited to electric power. In addition, diesel engines burn fossil fuels releasing carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas (GHG), as well as other pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides (NOx). Some oxides of nitrogen are not GHGs but they do perform a role in the formation of tropospheric ozone which is a GHG. Nitrous oxide (N2O) however, is produced by combustion processes, and is a potent GHG.

Alternative solutions are necessary across the entire transport sector, hence the drive toward clean fuel engine development, alongside new exhaust treatment technologies.

New exhaust treatment systems for heavy-duty engines
The research focuses on ammonia as a clean fuel. The first stage involves modeling dual fuel combustion and emission characteristics of ammonia with a carbon-based promoter. Ammonia requires a combustion promoter because of its higher absolute minimum ignition energy than traditional fuels. The second stage of the work will evaluate the NOx reduction efficiencies of commercial catalysts for the ammonia-based dual fuel, utilising a suite of Signal Group gas analysers donated to the project by Eminox.

Why ammonia?
Ammonia is considered a clean fuel because its (complete) combustion products are nitrogen and water. However, NOx gases are a byproduct of ammonia combustion. Nevertheless, ammonia represents a relatively good energy source and global infrastructure for its production and transportation already exists because of ammonia’s role in agricultural fertilizers.

There are several types of ammonia, each attributed a colour according to its production method. Traditional ammonia is known as ‘grey’ because it uses natural gas, but if carbon capture is used to remove carbon dioxide emissions, the ammonia is labelled ‘blue’. ‘Green’ ammonia is made using green hydrogen, created by electrolysis from renewable energy, so no fossil fuels are required.

In contrast with hydrogen, ammonia does not require cryogenic conditions for transportation as a liquid. Also, ammonia can be produced from hydrogen, and ammonia can be ‘cracked’ back to hydrogen after transportation, which means that ammonia can help resolve the transport issues associated with hydrogen.

Ammonia presents a number of challenges as a fuel for engine combustion. In addition to the requirement for a promoter fuel, these include NOx in the exhaust as well as ammonia slip, which is important because ammonia is both corrosive and toxic, and because unburned fuel represents inefficiency.

Research phase 1 – Dual fuel combustion modelling
Initial work is being undertaken with ‘Ansys Chemkin-Pro’ a chemical kinetics simulator program that models idealised reacting flows and provides insight into results. Madhumitha has been using the modelling program to investigate predicted effects on engine efficiency and emissions profile, by adjusting a number of different variables, such as stoichiometry, fuel energy shares, and fuel injection parameters. The results of the modelling are being used to inform subsequent work.

Research phase 2 – Post-combustion treatment
The second phase of the research, which is due to commence at the end of 2024, will evaluate the NOx reduction efficiencies of commercially available selective catalytic reduction (SCR) materials under a range of different conditions. Three different SCR catalysts will be trialled, based on zeolite, vanadium oxide and titanium.

The research laboratory in Sheffield contains a controlled temperature furnace reactor using simulated exhaust gases. Catalyst studies will be performed at Sheffield while partners at Brunel University in London will be conducting similar work with a diesel engine test bed; primarily to investigate combustion and fuel injection issues relating to ammonia fuel, but also to help verify exhaust gas composition under a range of conditions. Combined with the kinetic simulation work at Sheffield, realistic exhaust gas composition will be fed to the experimental reactor.

Gas analysis
The post catalyst exhaust gases will be analysed by the Signal Group analyser rack, after treatment by the catalysts. This instrumentation includes a heated vacuum chemiluminescence gas analyser for the measurement of NOx, NO and NO₂. A flame ionisation detector to analyse hydrocarbon levels, and a non-dispersive infrared multi-gas analyser for continuous measurements of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. This instrument is also fitted with an oxygen sensor.

Initial results
So far, modelling work has indicated that the use of an ammonia dual fuel could increase

N₂O emissions under certain operating conditions, particularly in cold starts. Exhaust gas temperature will reduce, while moisture and hydrogen levels can be expected to increase, and the effects of this on SCR catalyst deNOx efficiency will be studied further.

The model also showed that the utilisation of ammonia dual fuel has a number of implications for prospective SCR catalysts. For example, ammonia in the exhaust can help reduce NOx, and both hydrogen and hydrocarbons in the exhaust can enhance NOx conversion at moderate temperatures. However, N₂O will be difficult to decompose at low temperatures. By identifying regimes of operation and emissions, recommendations can be made on catalyst specification and operating conditions to mitigate any operational issues.

Summary
The development of clean fuel technology will be critically important to the decarbonisation of heavy vehicles. For example, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has a GHG emissions reduction strategy to reach net-zero by 2050, including a 20% reduction by 2030 and a 70% reduction by 2040, compared to 2008 levels. To reach these ambitions, the IMO will implement regulatory measures to be adopted in 2025 and enter into force around mid-2027. The achievement of these decarbonisation goals will depend heavily on the use of carbon-neutral fuels. This, in turn, means that new engine technology will be necessary, operating efficiently under known stoichiometric conditions, combined with effective aftertreatment systems to ensure the release of non-toxic, climate-friendly emissions.

Madhumitha explains, “The challenge for the project is to consider the minimisation of all potentially harmful emissions from new fuels, and we will be keeping a close eye on any N₂O, NO_x and ammonia when developing the new SCR systems.  However, the successful achievement of our goals will play an important role in helping the heavy vehicle sector to reduce its GHG emissions, so we are hugely excited about the prospects for this important project.”

University of British Columbia researchers say they have uncovered surprising insights into the Vancouver region’s “smellscape” using data from the Smell Vancouver app. Analyzing 549 reports from one year of app data, they discovered that “rotten” and “chemical” odours dominated, making up about 65 per cent of submissions. These unpleasant smells were linked to self-reported health issues like headaches and anxiety, leading some residents to change their behaviours, like closing windows even in stifling-hot weather.

“The reports illustrate how odours can be more than just a nuisance—they can impact physical and mental health, well-being, and quality of life,” said Dr. Amanda Giang, senior study author and assistant professor in UBC’s department of mechanical engineering and the Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability.

The app identified major sources of urban odours, including waste management and industrial activities. Four municipalities—City of Vancouver, Delta, Burnaby and Richmond—emerged as hotspots, each with its own distinct smell profiles and associated symptoms. Reports from Vancouver overwhelmingly focused on animal processing, while Delta saw higher complaints about garbage and compost, farming and cannabis.

Crowdsourcing science
With more than 3,500 reports logged, the app showcases the power of “crowdsourced science” in offering a more detailed view of urban air quality.

“Traditional air quality measurements are limited by their fixed locations and set sampling intervals, often missing the rapid onsets and impacts of odours,” explained Dr. Sahil Bhandari, co-author and former postdoctoral researcher in UBC’s faculty of applied science. “In addition, smell experiences are highly personal—what’s unpleasant to some people may be acceptable to others – and often occur in areas where monitors aren’t located. All this creates information gaps that traditional systems can’t address.”

Dr. Bhandari highlighted an instance where the app detected a strong foul odour from a refinery incident ahead of official reports, underscoring its potential for timely public awareness and emergency response.

Broader and more diverse participation
Despite these insights, more public participation is needed – for example, the app mainly attracted white women aged 30 to 49 without chronic health conditions and men from the highest income bracket. The researchers’ future studies will aim for more representative reports to provide a fuller picture of urban smells and their impacts.

Dr. Naomi Zimmerman, co-author and assistant professor of mechanical engineering at UBC said: “Integrating crowdsourced data into urban planning and policy can enhance responses to unpleasant smells. The SmellVan project underscores the need for policies that address odour sources, their broader health impacts and the importance of including diverse community demographics and perspectives.”

The study was published in July in the journal Environmental Research: Health.

Ultrafine particles, UFPs, the smallest particles that contribute to air pollution (and still a challenge to measure), hinder the function of mitochondria in human olfactory mucosa cells, according to a new study, findings that appear to clarify some of the adverse health effects believed to be linked to exposure.

Led by the University of Eastern Finland, the study appeared to show that traffic-related UFPs impair mitochondrial functions in primary human olfactory mucosa cells by hampering oxidative phosphorylation and redox balance. The responses of olfactory mucosa cells of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease differed from those of cognitively healthy controls. The findings were published in Redox Biology.

Air pollution is believed to constitute a major global burden on people’s health, and it has been indicated as a risk factor for dementia, including Alzheimer’s disease, AD. Despite the growing body of evidence, the role of UFPs in the cellular and molecular changes in the human brain leading to Alzheimer’s disease remains obscure.

The olfactory mucosa is a sensory tissue responsible for odour detection, and it is directly exposed to the environment and in contact with the brain. Interestingly, one of the earliest clinical symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease is an impaired sense of smell. The Kanninen Lab at the University of Eastern Finland uses a physiologically relevant human-based in-vitro model of the olfactory mucosa, which is generated from cells obtained from voluntary donors and collected in collaboration with Kuopio University Hospital. Earlier studies by the Kanninen Lab have shown that this model recapitulates AD-related alterations, which makes it suitable for investigating air pollution and its connection to AD.

“Dysfunction of mitochondria plays a key role in the development and progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as AD, and mitochondria are known to be especially vulnerable to environmental toxicants. Still, the connection between UFPs and mitochondrial functions in the context of AD has not been previously investigated in the human olfactory mucosa,” says first author, Doctoral Researcher Laura Mussalo of the Kanninen Lab at the University of Eastern Finland.

The study explored molecular mechanisms of how UFPs affect the mitochondrial function of olfactory mucosa cells from cognitively healthy individuals and individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease. The researchers compared responses in mitochondria of these two health status groups by examining gene expression, and with functional assessment. The researchers were also interested in determining whether fossil and renewable diesel fuels cause different effects, and how modern aftertreatment devices in the engine, such as particulate filters, affect the responses observed at the mitochondrial level.

The study provides evidence of traffic-related UFPs being able to reach even the inner mitochondrial membrane, impair oxidative phosphorylation, and cause mitochondrial dysfunction. Both gene expression level alterations and functional studies confirmed disruptions in mitochondrial respiration, decreased ATP levels, and alterations in redox balance leading to increased oxidative stress. These alterations were strongest in response to exhausts derived from an engine without aftertreatment devices. However, the exhaust from an engine with after-treatment devices showed only negligible changes. Responses observed in cells from individulas with AD were slightly deviating from those of the controls, suggesting AD-related alterations in olfactory mucosa cells upon exposure to UFPs.

There is an urgent need to understand the interplay of air pollutants and human health in order to steer the political decision-making for efficient reduction of air pollutants, which could, in the long run, reduce the economic burden caused by adverse health effects. This study provides important information on the increased sensitivity of individuals with AD to the effects of air pollution exposure. It also provides new insight to form the basis for mitigation and preventive actions against the health impairments caused by UFP exposure.

The study constitutes part of TUBE project, which was funded by the Horizon 2020 programme of the European Union. The study has also received funding from the Kuopio Area Respiratory Foundation, the Finnish Brain Foundation, Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation, Päivikki and Sakari Sohlberg Foundation, and The Finnish Cultural Foundation’s North Savo Regional Fund.

A new research hub – the TransiT Hub – led by Heriot-Watt University and the University of Glasgow, plans to use digital twins to determine how transport systems, from road and rail to air and maritime, can be decarbonised as quickly, safely and cheaply as possible.

It is supported by a £46 million investment from the UKRI Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and 67 partners.

Digital twins are digital replicas of the physical world which can be built from data collected in real time by sensors connected to infrastructure such as roads, railways or shipping.

This means real-world data can be analysed to test and improve different scenarios, and the digital twin can then send back its solution for an improved process to the physical world in near real-time.

This could help motorists and reduce carbon emissions, says the group. For example, through updating digital road signs with information on the shortest route out of traffic jams.

It will also allow us to test how parts of a future decarbonised transport system work that doesn’t even exist yet, for example electric road systems and alternative fuels.

By speeding up the way new systems are tested it will help to identify the lowest-cost pathways to net zero carbon emissions, such as through helping logistics companies to identify the most sustainable routes, vehicle types and journey times.

Passengers and commuters will also benefit through being able to identify and help them make decisions about the most sustainable travel choices on a local, regional and national level.

Personalised digital twin assistants, operating similarly to how your Netflix account learns your preferences, could also build an understanding of mobility needs and journey requirements.

They could then offer near to real-time journey options based on individual needs and budget, as well as the reliability of transport services and how the impact of weather might change them.

Feryal Clark, Minister for AI and Digital Government, said: “We see a technology future for British people which enriches and improves their lives. The research TransiT will now carry out is a prime example of how we’re supporting cutting-edge innovations to make that vision a reality.

“On top of saving the public time and money on the journeys they take day-to-day, this project will also harness the power of transformative digital technologies to cut carbon emissions – demonstrating the incredible impact technology can have in improving our public services, tackling climate change, and beyond.”

Transport Minister Mike Kane said: “Digital twinning is a powerful technology that can help us integrate transport networks, improve efficiency and deliver greener transport for all.

“The launch of TransiT is an important step which will bring together academia, industry and government to research and realise the benefits of this technology for the transport sector.

“This is an excellent example of the work being done across government to deliver true innovation.”

Data to build the digital twins will come from TransiT’s industry partners, including the number and type of vehicles, fuel types, load sizes, length and frequency of routes.

The partners, who are providing £26 million in support, come from across the digital, energy and transport sectors, including transport operators, regulators, vehicle makers, technology companies and energy suppliers.

The collaboration is thought to be one of the largest transport consortiums of its kind and the hub will also work with passenger groups so that transport users can help researchers to model human travel behaviour and choices.

TransiT will also provide a blueprint for how digital twins could allow other sectors to make transformational change, while allowing policymakers to study the consequences of decisions across a wide range of scenarios.

EPSRC Executive Chair Professor Charlotte Deane said: “Digital twins offer an enormous opportunity to decarbonise our transport networks by testing the potential impact of changes more quickly, reducing costs and helping us to design the transport networks we need, when we need them.

“Passengers and commuters will benefit through being able to choose the most sustainable travel choices, while transport operators will be able to speed up their work to provide low-carbon services.

“TransiT is the result of considerable work between UKRI and government to identify how we can best harness the expertise of a wide range of partners across academia, industry and other organisations to ensure that we seize the opportunities digital twins offer.”

TransiT joint director Professor Phil Greening, of Heriot-Watt University, said: “Transport accounts for about a third of UK carbon emissions and, with global temperatures rapidly rising, we have run out of time to carry out real world transport trials and learn from them.

“So, if the UK is to meet its carbon reduction commitments, we have to do our experiments digitally. We need to design the future transport system and optimise the transition to it.

“Digital twins will help us see the where, what and how to decarbonise transport. We start by building individual models of real-world transport systems.

“These can then be connected together and linked to the real world to give a bigger picture of what our future decarbonised transport system might look like – and the lowest cost way of getting there.”

TransiT joint director Professor David Flynn, from the University of Glasgow, said: “We will explore how digital twinning can improve the design of future transport solutions, to ensure services are accessible to all.

“It’s challenging for designers and engineers today to appreciate the perspective of citizens with mobility challenges and what they experience throughout the full journey. If we can create and embed new design principles, we can identify equitable pathways to decarbonisation.”

The eight universities in TransiT will each focus on specific research areas:

• Heriot-Watt – logistics and freight, including the Centre for Sustainable Road Freight and The Centre for Logistics and Sustainability.
• University of Glasgow – digital twinning and cyber physical systems, including the university’s research groups in Energy and Sustainability and Communication, Sensing and Imaging.
• University of Leeds – transport decarbonisation policy development, including the university’s Institute for Transport Studies, one of the UK’s leading departments for transport teaching and research.
• University of Birmingham – rail, including the university’s Birmingham Centre for Railway Research and Education, one of largest centres of its kind.
• Cranfield University – aviation, including the university’s globally-recognised Centre for Digital Engineering and Manufacturing.
• UCL – maritime, including the shipping research group at the university’s UCL Energy Institute.
• University of Cambridge – road freight, including the Centre for Sustainable Road Freight, a collaboration between Cambridge, Heriot-Watt and Westminster universities with industry and government partners.
• Durham University – engineering of public transport systems, including work on hydrogen transportation in the Durham Energy Institute.