Denmark has begun storage of CO2 in the subsoil of the North Sea, according to INEOS, the lead partner in Project Greensand, described as the world’s first cross-border carbon capture and storage scheme (CCS).

According to a 10 September announcement, the 23 partners behind the project have now submitted the final report from the pilot project, which has aimed to develop, test and demonstrate safe and efficient storage of CO2 in the North Sea subsurface.

The group said the thorough technical verification confirms that the stored CO2 remains safely and permanently in the closed Nini West reservoir 1,800 metres below the North Sea seabed, as expected. This part of the work was carried out by independent provider of risk, verification and standardization services, DNV.

“We now have documentation that we have a well-functioning storage for CO2 in the North Sea subsoil, where large amounts of CO2 that would otherwise have been emitted into the atmosphere can be safely and permanently stored. We can see that the stored CO2 behaves as expected in the reservoir 1,800 metres below the seabed. That confidence gives us a solid foundation to take the next steps that will be crucial for CCS in Denmark”, said Mads Gade, Country Manager at INEOS Denmark and Commercial Director at INEOS Energy, the leading partner behind Project Greensand.

“Outstanding work” from all 23 partners
Project Greensand demonstrated that captured CO2 can be transported across borders and stored offshore to mitigate climate change. This was marked by the parties behind the consortium at the event First Carbon Storage on 8 March 2023 in Esbjerg, where Denmark’s King Frederik gave the signal to begin the CO2-storage operation,

It was also marked with a video speech by President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen and speech by Minister for Climate, Energy and Utilities, Lars Aagaard.

“We are very proud that we are the first in the world to succeed in developing, testing and demonstrating a well-functioning value chain for safe and efficient capture, transport and storage of CO2 across national borders with the aim of mitigating climate change. This is an important step on the way to meeting Denmark’s and the EU’s climate ambitions, and each of the 23 partners has done an outstanding job. I am impressed by how the task has been solved across many professional groups, which has made this phase of Project Greensand come together”, says Mads Gade.

The intensive work in the EUDP-supported project has also meant that a large group of Danish and international companies have gained valuable experience in the work with capture, transport and storage of CO2, and now have better conditions to play a role in a future CCS market in Europe.

Standing on the shoulders of an earlier project in Greensand
With a completed and verified pilot phase, the way has been paved for the development of CCS in Denmark. The lead partner in Project Greensand, INEOS, has already applied for approval on behalf of licence partners Wintershall Dea (now Harbour Energy) and Nordsøfonden for Denmark’s first large-scale CO2 storage facility, and is now working hard to start CO2 storage in the North Sea by the end of 2025 or the beginning of 2026. The ambition is that up to 400,000 tonnes of CO2 will be stored per year, while the plan is to store up to 8 million tonnes of CO2 per year in the area under the North Sea’s seabed from 2030.

At the same time, work is also underway to investigate whether it is possible and safe to store CO2 underground on land in Denmark, and earlier this year, the Minister for Climate, Energy and Utilities awarded INEOS, Wintershall Dea (Harbour Energy) and Nordsøfonden an exploration licence for an area of the Danish subsurface in Jutland in the Gassum reservoir. The experience from Greensand will be included in the work to demonstrate safe storage also on land.

“We emphasised that Denmark has moved to the forefront of CCS in the world when we stored the first CO2 in the North Sea. Now we are in the process of investigating how to take the next step, and here we stand on the shoulders of the invaluable experience from Project Greensand’s pilot. We are keen to continue this momentum with an ambition that Greensand will be the first CO2 storage facility in operation in the EU, and we are now awaiting the Danish authorities’ approval of a permanent storage. This is an important step, because if Denmark takes just 5% of a future CCS market in Europe, it could mean up to 9,000 jobs, with an economic potential of DKK 50 billion. At the same time, we can support the EU’s objectives, because we have all the prerequisites to create a new industry that is part of the solution to the challenges of the climate”.

The Scottish Government announced a new Green Industrial Strategy on 11 September.

It was unveiled by Deputy First Minister Kate Forbes and colleagues during a visit to Flowcopter, a company based near Edinburgh which is developing drones that can be used in the offshore wind sector.

She said: “This Green Industrial Strategy spells out where we believe the greatest opportunities lie, and where we will focus our attention and resources.

“It provides certainty for businesses – both at home and abroad – by demonstrating where and how we will work to reduce barriers to investment and, where appropriate, share risk and reward.”

The document pinpoints five priority areas: maximising Scotland’s wind economy, growing the hydrogen sector, developing the carbon capture, utilisation and storage sector, supporting green economy professional and financial services, and attracting clean energy intensive industries such as datacentres.

Other specific actions will include: hosting a Global Offshore Wind Investment Forum next Spring, working with the sector to develop hubs of hydrogen production and demand and working with public and private partners to drive investment in key projects.

Responding, Claire Mack, Chief Executive of Scottish Renewables, said:

“Renewable energy is Scotland’s greatest economic opportunity and the Green Industrial Strategy, which has been widely welcomed by industry, will provide a real boost for those committed to delivering on our net-zero ambitions.

“We have worked closely with the Scottish Government on this strategy and are pleased that it has promised to drive forward the full potential for public and private investment in essential infrastructure, with plans to secure the manufacturing facilities Scotland needs to maintain its position as a world leader in clean power.

“We have been clear that the Scottish Government must show a real commitment to supporting companies across the supply chain and we welcome the energy supply chain package of support announced today.

“Scottish Renewables has repeatedly highlighted the need for a robust planning and consenting system alongside a commitment to invest in green skills which has been reflected in the strategy.

“The Scottish Government must now outline how the Green Industrial strategy will strategically align with the anticipated Energy Strategy and Just Transition Plan to fully realise the vast opportunities of renewable energy across all sectors including offshore wind, low carbon heat and green hydrogen.

“The renewable energy industry first called for a Green Industrial Strategy more than two years ago and it is delivery that counts. The Scottish Government must hold itself accountable for what has been announced today and demonstrate confidence that it can deliver Scotland’s clean power future.”

The Royal Air Force has used a blend of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) with normal jet fuel on routine operations for the first time.

Aircraft including Typhoon and Poseidon submarine hunters, operating from RAF Lossiemouth in Scotland, have been using a blend of conventional and SAF in an apparent first for the air force.

During November 2023 to February 2024 four million litres of blended SAF were delivered to the Royal Air Force through a contract with World Fuel Services. A further five million one hundred and fifty thousand litres of fuel are being delivered over the period July to October 2024.

The fuel is used to power aircraft operating from Lossiemouth in Morayshire, northern Scotland. RAF Lossiemouth is one of the UK’s busiest RAF stations and is home to Typhoon aircraft who are ready to deploy 24/7, 365 as part of the UK’s Quick Reaction Alert – keeping Britain secure.

Sustainable fuel sources include hydrogenated fats and oils, wood waste, alcohols, sugars, household waste, biomass and algae.

Aviation currently accounts for nearly two thirds of fuel used across defence.

In 2020, the MoD updated aviation fuel standards to allow up to 50% sustainable sources to be used in fuel mixes for defence aircraft. The RAF has been trialling different types of fuel since then. In November 2021, an RAF pilot flew a microlight aircraft powered by synthetic fuel created from air and water, described as a world-first. In Spring 2022, a drone was flown on synthetic kerosene made by genetically modified bacteria. The RAF has also tested an electric aircraft flown at RAF Cranwell.

In November 2022, an RAF Voyager trialled the use of 100% SAF, flying for 90-minutes from RAF Brize Norton, said to be a world first for a wide-bodied military aircraft, a joint endeavour between the RAF, DE&S and industry partners Airbus, AirTanker and Rolls-Royce, with the fuel supplied by Air bp.

In 2023, the Royal Air Force used SAF to achieve the first SAF blend air-to-air refuelling of a Typhoon and C-130 Hercules aircraft. This was followed by the RAF’s display typhoon being powered on blended SAF at this year’s Royal International Air Tattoo, the first time this aircraft has displayed to the public on this fuel.

Researchers at the University of Sheffield are exploring new exhaust aftertreatment systems for heavy-duty engines capable of running on clean, zero-carbon fuels such as ammonia. This four-year project is funded by an EPSRC grant and supported by the industrial partner Eminox. The project is led by Bill Nimmo, Professor of Energy Engineering and Sustainability, with PhD student Madhumitha Rajendran.

Background
The decarbonisation of transport represents a vitally important component of global initiatives to minimise the impacts of climate change. However, whilst the electrification of light vehicles is a logical way forward, heavy vehicles used in the rail, marine and construction sectors have high torque requirements that are unsuited to electric power. In addition, diesel engines burn fossil fuels releasing carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas (GHG), as well as other pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides (NOx). Some oxides of nitrogen are not GHGs but they do perform a role in the formation of tropospheric ozone which is a GHG. Nitrous oxide (N2O) however, is produced by combustion processes, and is a potent GHG.

Alternative solutions are necessary across the entire transport sector, hence the drive toward clean fuel engine development, alongside new exhaust treatment technologies.

New exhaust treatment systems for heavy-duty engines
The research focuses on ammonia as a clean fuel. The first stage involves modeling dual fuel combustion and emission characteristics of ammonia with a carbon-based promoter. Ammonia requires a combustion promoter because of its higher absolute minimum ignition energy than traditional fuels. The second stage of the work will evaluate the NOx reduction efficiencies of commercial catalysts for the ammonia-based dual fuel, utilising a suite of Signal Group gas analysers donated to the project by Eminox.

Why ammonia?
Ammonia is considered a clean fuel because its (complete) combustion products are nitrogen and water. However, NOx gases are a byproduct of ammonia combustion. Nevertheless, ammonia represents a relatively good energy source and global infrastructure for its production and transportation already exists because of ammonia’s role in agricultural fertilizers.

There are several types of ammonia, each attributed a colour according to its production method. Traditional ammonia is known as ‘grey’ because it uses natural gas, but if carbon capture is used to remove carbon dioxide emissions, the ammonia is labelled ‘blue’. ‘Green’ ammonia is made using green hydrogen, created by electrolysis from renewable energy, so no fossil fuels are required.

In contrast with hydrogen, ammonia does not require cryogenic conditions for transportation as a liquid. Also, ammonia can be produced from hydrogen, and ammonia can be ‘cracked’ back to hydrogen after transportation, which means that ammonia can help resolve the transport issues associated with hydrogen.

Ammonia presents a number of challenges as a fuel for engine combustion. In addition to the requirement for a promoter fuel, these include NOx in the exhaust as well as ammonia slip, which is important because ammonia is both corrosive and toxic, and because unburned fuel represents inefficiency.

Research phase 1 – Dual fuel combustion modelling
Initial work is being undertaken with ‘Ansys Chemkin-Pro’ a chemical kinetics simulator program that models idealised reacting flows and provides insight into results. Madhumitha has been using the modelling program to investigate predicted effects on engine efficiency and emissions profile, by adjusting a number of different variables, such as stoichiometry, fuel energy shares, and fuel injection parameters. The results of the modelling are being used to inform subsequent work.

Research phase 2 – Post-combustion treatment
The second phase of the research, which is due to commence at the end of 2024, will evaluate the NOx reduction efficiencies of commercially available selective catalytic reduction (SCR) materials under a range of different conditions. Three different SCR catalysts will be trialled, based on zeolite, vanadium oxide and titanium.

The research laboratory in Sheffield contains a controlled temperature furnace reactor using simulated exhaust gases. Catalyst studies will be performed at Sheffield while partners at Brunel University in London will be conducting similar work with a diesel engine test bed; primarily to investigate combustion and fuel injection issues relating to ammonia fuel, but also to help verify exhaust gas composition under a range of conditions. Combined with the kinetic simulation work at Sheffield, realistic exhaust gas composition will be fed to the experimental reactor.

Gas analysis
The post catalyst exhaust gases will be analysed by the Signal Group analyser rack, after treatment by the catalysts. This instrumentation includes a heated vacuum chemiluminescence gas analyser for the measurement of NOx, NO and NO₂. A flame ionisation detector to analyse hydrocarbon levels, and a non-dispersive infrared multi-gas analyser for continuous measurements of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. This instrument is also fitted with an oxygen sensor.

Initial results
So far, modelling work has indicated that the use of an ammonia dual fuel could increase

N₂O emissions under certain operating conditions, particularly in cold starts. Exhaust gas temperature will reduce, while moisture and hydrogen levels can be expected to increase, and the effects of this on SCR catalyst deNOx efficiency will be studied further.

The model also showed that the utilisation of ammonia dual fuel has a number of implications for prospective SCR catalysts. For example, ammonia in the exhaust can help reduce NOx, and both hydrogen and hydrocarbons in the exhaust can enhance NOx conversion at moderate temperatures. However, N₂O will be difficult to decompose at low temperatures. By identifying regimes of operation and emissions, recommendations can be made on catalyst specification and operating conditions to mitigate any operational issues.

Summary
The development of clean fuel technology will be critically important to the decarbonisation of heavy vehicles. For example, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has a GHG emissions reduction strategy to reach net-zero by 2050, including a 20% reduction by 2030 and a 70% reduction by 2040, compared to 2008 levels. To reach these ambitions, the IMO will implement regulatory measures to be adopted in 2025 and enter into force around mid-2027. The achievement of these decarbonisation goals will depend heavily on the use of carbon-neutral fuels. This, in turn, means that new engine technology will be necessary, operating efficiently under known stoichiometric conditions, combined with effective aftertreatment systems to ensure the release of non-toxic, climate-friendly emissions.

Madhumitha explains, “The challenge for the project is to consider the minimisation of all potentially harmful emissions from new fuels, and we will be keeping a close eye on any N₂O, NO_x and ammonia when developing the new SCR systems.  However, the successful achievement of our goals will play an important role in helping the heavy vehicle sector to reduce its GHG emissions, so we are hugely excited about the prospects for this important project.”

A new research hub – the TransiT Hub – led by Heriot-Watt University and the University of Glasgow, plans to use digital twins to determine how transport systems, from road and rail to air and maritime, can be decarbonised as quickly, safely and cheaply as possible.

It is supported by a £46 million investment from the UKRI Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and 67 partners.

Digital twins are digital replicas of the physical world which can be built from data collected in real time by sensors connected to infrastructure such as roads, railways or shipping.

This means real-world data can be analysed to test and improve different scenarios, and the digital twin can then send back its solution for an improved process to the physical world in near real-time.

This could help motorists and reduce carbon emissions, says the group. For example, through updating digital road signs with information on the shortest route out of traffic jams.

It will also allow us to test how parts of a future decarbonised transport system work that doesn’t even exist yet, for example electric road systems and alternative fuels.

By speeding up the way new systems are tested it will help to identify the lowest-cost pathways to net zero carbon emissions, such as through helping logistics companies to identify the most sustainable routes, vehicle types and journey times.

Passengers and commuters will also benefit through being able to identify and help them make decisions about the most sustainable travel choices on a local, regional and national level.

Personalised digital twin assistants, operating similarly to how your Netflix account learns your preferences, could also build an understanding of mobility needs and journey requirements.

They could then offer near to real-time journey options based on individual needs and budget, as well as the reliability of transport services and how the impact of weather might change them.

Feryal Clark, Minister for AI and Digital Government, said: “We see a technology future for British people which enriches and improves their lives. The research TransiT will now carry out is a prime example of how we’re supporting cutting-edge innovations to make that vision a reality.

“On top of saving the public time and money on the journeys they take day-to-day, this project will also harness the power of transformative digital technologies to cut carbon emissions – demonstrating the incredible impact technology can have in improving our public services, tackling climate change, and beyond.”

Transport Minister Mike Kane said: “Digital twinning is a powerful technology that can help us integrate transport networks, improve efficiency and deliver greener transport for all.

“The launch of TransiT is an important step which will bring together academia, industry and government to research and realise the benefits of this technology for the transport sector.

“This is an excellent example of the work being done across government to deliver true innovation.”

Data to build the digital twins will come from TransiT’s industry partners, including the number and type of vehicles, fuel types, load sizes, length and frequency of routes.

The partners, who are providing £26 million in support, come from across the digital, energy and transport sectors, including transport operators, regulators, vehicle makers, technology companies and energy suppliers.

The collaboration is thought to be one of the largest transport consortiums of its kind and the hub will also work with passenger groups so that transport users can help researchers to model human travel behaviour and choices.

TransiT will also provide a blueprint for how digital twins could allow other sectors to make transformational change, while allowing policymakers to study the consequences of decisions across a wide range of scenarios.

EPSRC Executive Chair Professor Charlotte Deane said: “Digital twins offer an enormous opportunity to decarbonise our transport networks by testing the potential impact of changes more quickly, reducing costs and helping us to design the transport networks we need, when we need them.

“Passengers and commuters will benefit through being able to choose the most sustainable travel choices, while transport operators will be able to speed up their work to provide low-carbon services.

“TransiT is the result of considerable work between UKRI and government to identify how we can best harness the expertise of a wide range of partners across academia, industry and other organisations to ensure that we seize the opportunities digital twins offer.”

TransiT joint director Professor Phil Greening, of Heriot-Watt University, said: “Transport accounts for about a third of UK carbon emissions and, with global temperatures rapidly rising, we have run out of time to carry out real world transport trials and learn from them.

“So, if the UK is to meet its carbon reduction commitments, we have to do our experiments digitally. We need to design the future transport system and optimise the transition to it.

“Digital twins will help us see the where, what and how to decarbonise transport. We start by building individual models of real-world transport systems.

“These can then be connected together and linked to the real world to give a bigger picture of what our future decarbonised transport system might look like – and the lowest cost way of getting there.”

TransiT joint director Professor David Flynn, from the University of Glasgow, said: “We will explore how digital twinning can improve the design of future transport solutions, to ensure services are accessible to all.

“It’s challenging for designers and engineers today to appreciate the perspective of citizens with mobility challenges and what they experience throughout the full journey. If we can create and embed new design principles, we can identify equitable pathways to decarbonisation.”

The eight universities in TransiT will each focus on specific research areas:

• Heriot-Watt – logistics and freight, including the Centre for Sustainable Road Freight and The Centre for Logistics and Sustainability.
• University of Glasgow – digital twinning and cyber physical systems, including the university’s research groups in Energy and Sustainability and Communication, Sensing and Imaging.
• University of Leeds – transport decarbonisation policy development, including the university’s Institute for Transport Studies, one of the UK’s leading departments for transport teaching and research.
• University of Birmingham – rail, including the university’s Birmingham Centre for Railway Research and Education, one of largest centres of its kind.
• Cranfield University – aviation, including the university’s globally-recognised Centre for Digital Engineering and Manufacturing.
• UCL – maritime, including the shipping research group at the university’s UCL Energy Institute.
• University of Cambridge – road freight, including the Centre for Sustainable Road Freight, a collaboration between Cambridge, Heriot-Watt and Westminster universities with industry and government partners.
• Durham University – engineering of public transport systems, including work on hydrogen transportation in the Durham Energy Institute.

New analysis from energy think tank Ember shows that the wood-burning Drax power station is the UK’s largest source of CO2 emissions at 12.1 million tonnes in 2022. This is significantly greater than any other single UK power station, including coal and gas.

The plant is by far the largest single CO2 emitter in the UK power sector, accounting for over double the amount of CO2 emissions of the second largest emitter, RWE’s Pembroke Gas Power Station, with 5.3 million tonnes CO2 emissions. Drax’s emissions are also more than double Port Talbot Steelworks, the largest industry emitter, which had 5.7 million tonnes CO2 of emissions in 2022.

Despite its limited role in the UK’s power system, burning wood is now the UK electricity sector’s second largest CO2 emitter after fossil gas. Woody biomass generated less than 5% of power in 2022, but accounted for a fifth of UK power sector emissions. This is because wood has to be burned in higher volumes than fossil fuels to produce the same amount of energy. The Drax biomass plant accounts for most of the UK’s power generated from wood-burning.

Tomos Harrison, Electricity Transition Analyst, Ember, said: “It’s a startling fact that the UK’s largest single source of greenhouse gases is a government-backed project that receives hundreds of millions in energy bill payer funding every year.”

Biomass power is still subsidised despite risks to the climate
In 2022 Drax received an estimated £617 million in public subsidy from UK energy bill payers. Biomass qualifies for these subsidies, along with exemption from carbon taxes, because wood is categorised as an emissions-free source of energy. However, the assumption that all emissions released are offset by the growth of new trees to replace those harvested for burning has been widely challenged. A large and growing majority of scientific evidence shows that burning wood for power is often not carbon neutral, and in some circumstances can be a worse polluter than coal.

UK plans for reaching Net Zero continue to rely on negative emissions from Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS). This includes pathways set out by the Climate Change Committee, the UK’s advisory group for climate change. However, the ability of a BECCS project to deliver negative emissions is dependent on whether the biomass used is carbon-neutral.

Currently, Drax is the only company in the UK developing BECCS in the power sector. It is looking to secure long-term financial commitment from the UK government to support this project. Research by Ember suggests the project would require a subsidy of £31.7 billion.

Harrison commented: “The science is clear – burning wood for power is far from guaranteed carbon neutral. It doesn’t make sense to gamble public money on Drax’s BECCS project when there’s a risk it could significantly add to the UK’s emissions.”

Modern commercial aircraft flying at high altitudes create longer-lived planet-warming contrails than older aircraft, according to a new study by researchers at Imperial College London.

The results, according to the group, mean that although modern planes emit less carbon than older aircraft, they may be contributing more to climate change through contrails.

Private jets produce more contrails than previously thought, according to the findings, potentially leading to outsized impacts on climate warming.

Contrails, or condensation trails, are thin streaks of cloud created by aircraft exhaust fumes.

While the exact warming effect of contrails is uncertain, many scientists believe it is greater than the warming caused by carbon emissions from jet fuel.

Published on 7 August in Environmental Research Letters, the study used machine learning to analyse satellite data on more than 64,000 contrails from a range of aircraft flying over the North Atlantic Ocean.

Modern aircraft that fly at above 38,000 feet (about 12km), such as the Airbus A350 and Boeing 787 Airliners, create more contrails than older passenger-carrying commercial aircraft, the study found.

To reduce jet fuel consumption, modern aircraft are designed to fly at higher altitudes where the air is thinner with less aerodynamic drag, compared to older commercial aircraft, which usually fly at slightly lower altitudes (around 35,000ft/11km).

This means these higher-flying aircraft create less carbon emissions per passenger. However, it also means they create contrails that take longer to dissipate – creating a warming effect for longer and a complicated trade-off for the aviation industry.

Double whammy of warming?
Dr Edward Gryspeerdt, the lead author of the study and a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the Grantham Institute – Climate Change and the Environment, said: “It’s common knowledge that flying is not good for the climate. However, most people do not appreciate that contrails and jet fuel carbon emissions cause a double whammy warming of the climate.

“This study throws a spanner in the works for the aviation industry. Newer aircraft are flying higher and higher in the atmosphere to increase fuel efficiency and reduce carbon emissions.

“The unintended consequence of this is that these aircraft flying over the North Atlantic are now creating more, longer-lived, contrails, trapping additional heat in the atmosphere and increasing the climate impact of aviation.

“This doesn’t mean that more efficient aircraft are a bad thing – far from it, as they have lower carbon emissions per passenger-mile. However, our finding reflects the challenges the aviation industry faces when reducing its climate impact.”

The study did confirm a simple step that can be taken to shorten the lifetime of contrails: reduce the amount of soot emitted from aircraft engines, produced when fuel burns inefficiently.

Modern aircraft engines are designed to be cleaner, typically emit fewer soot particles, which cuts down the lifetime of contrails.

While other studies using models have predicted this phenomenon, the study published today is the first to confirm it using real-world observations.

Co-author Dr Marc Stettler, a Reader in Transport and the Environment at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, said: “From other studies, we know that the number of soot particles in aircraft exhaust plays a key role in the properties of newly formed contrails. We suspected that this would also affect how long contrails live for.

“Our study provides the first evidence that emitting fewer soot particles results in contrails that fall out of the sky faster compared to contrails formed on more numerous soot particles from older, dirtier engines.”

Private jets: the worst offenders?
Even higher in the sky, the researchers found that private jets create contrails more often than previously thought – adding to concerns about the excessive use of these aircraft by the super-rich.

Despite being smaller and using less fuel, private jets create similar contrails to much larger commercial aircraft, the analysis found, which surprised the researchers.

Private jets fly higher than other planes, more than 40,000 feet above earth where there is less air traffic. However, like modern commercial aircraft creating more contrails compared to lower-flying older commercial aircraft, the high altitudes flown by private jets means they create outsized contrails.

Dr Gryspeerdt said: “Despite their smaller size, private jets create contrails as often as much larger aircraft. We already know that these aircraft create a huge amount of carbon emissions per passenger so the super-rich can fly in comfort.

“Our finding adds to concerns about the climate impact caused by private jets as poor countries continue to get battered by extreme weather events.”

When thinking about the construction sector and emissions, the first thing that may spring to mind is the CO2 created when heating, cooling and lighting the structure. However, is this the only and most important aspect to explore? Does it give the full picture of a building’s carbon footprint? Indoor air quality expert Volution offers a more expansive appreciation of the topic.

Historically, building regulators have looked to “operational carbon” in buildings as an indication of sustainability. This metric solely focuses on the use of carbon over the lifetime of a building and has been the measurement of choice since the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. That is almost 30 years ago and in this time much has changed, including the UK Government’s commitment to reach Net Zero by 2050.

Although operational carbon has been the standard measurement for many years, the newest version of the Building Regulations that has recently passed through the Decent Homes Standard might well be the last version that uses operational carbon as its main metric. As we decarbonise the grid, and as our buildings become more energy efficient, we will reach the stage where operational carbon will no longer be the focus. In its place will be embodied carbon.

Embodied carbon refers to all the CO2 emitted; not just from the time of construction and onwards, but the entire lifetime. Typically, this is associated with any processes before construction, such as products used in the building and the CO2 emitted to create the materials. Any carbon associated with maintaining repairing, refurbishing and demolishing the building also fits under this criterion.

Embodied carbon is seen as the future of reporting on emissions in the construction sector. The Environmental Audit Committee, which scrutinises the UK Government’s performance on environmental protection and sustainable development, has emphasised the importance of this and urges the Government to develop carbon targets for buildings that align with the UK’s Net Zero goals. This is in hopes of helping builders and developers determine which low-carbon materials they should use.

Currently, construction contributes to about 25% of the UK’s carbon emissions – which is both a combination of operational and embodied carbon. It’s essential we target both metrics but to do so we must correctly calculate and isolate the quantity of embodied carbon.

Doing so is not straightforward. There aren’t many standard practises and there are no targets in place for embodied carbon although there are international requirements. For example, the International Green Construction Code has proposed specific guidance on embodied carbon amendments, including a requirement for a specific percentage of products to have Environmental Product Declarations (EPD) and a separate percentage of products to meet specific Global Warming Potential (GWP) limits at 125% lower than the products’ Industry-Wide-EPD.

Due to this lack of standardisation in legislation, we run into a handful of issues when trying to measure and mitigate embodied carbon. Measuring embodied carbon within a supply chain can be very difficult. To produce accurate embodied carbon numbers, an EPD, which captures and quantifies all the environmental information regarding the life cycle of a given product, is required.

This is easier said than done. Try approaching a manufacturer to ask for the EPD of its polymer – likely they won’t have one. This is a common experience as EPDs are not compulsorily in the UK, which is a stark difference compared to many European companies, with some introducing EDPs as early as 1992.

The alternative way to estimate embodied carbon is the DIY method. The issue however is it takes a huge amount of work to get to an accurate number from a manufacturer. And, understandably, many manufacturers do not want to share that type of information as the assumption is it could be used as intel to push back on pricing during procurement discussions.

The Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA) has helpfully developed guidance that provides a carbon intensity estimate when reporting on different materials. The guidance is especially helpful for determining the varying levels of embodied carbon for different types of materials.

Each material, and the difference in emissions from recycled to virgin vary. Recycled materials are much lower in carbon intensity than virgin materials, with the potential to reduce CO2 emissions by 40%-70% percent.

Consider steel, which to make from scratch requires a blast furnace to produce liquid iron. This process consumes about 60% of the overall energy demand for steelworks therefore removing the process via recycling eliminates these emissions immediately.

With virgin plastic, a huge amount of emissions comes from the disposal of the plastic. The incineration of plastic packaging, which is the primary means of disposal for many European countries, generates three grams of CO2 for every gram of plastic.

For steel, plastic and other materials, there is a clear benefit in using recycled materials but for there to be action, we need more awareness and understanding of why the processes and emissions vary from product to product. Embodied carbon brings these different variables to the forefront.

The benefits of embodied carbon reporting are clearly pertinent but for now, the priority needs to be on reporting. Companies need to start reporting and from there they can assess where to target their efforts to reduce the embodied carbon in their operations. Moreover, the UK Government must create legislation and regulation must be standardised, with an emphasis on greater transparency in modelling and reporting processes.

As presented, it is clear that embodied carbon in construction is a complex issue that can be tracked by third-party methods and statistics and greatly reduced by the recycling of materials. To reach the UK’s Net Zero target by 2050, embodied carbon needs to take more of a spotlight from a legislative perspective. It may be difficult and time consuming, but the ROI is undeniable.

Google’s greenhouse gas emissions have soared 48 per cent over the past five years with its artificial intelligence (AI) products relying on energy-intensive data centres.

The group labelled “increases in data centre energy consumption and supply chain emissions” as the primary driver behind the rise, with total emissions reaching 14.3 million metric tons, according to its annual environmental report.

It is estimated that data centres contribute 2.3-3.7 per cent of the world’s CO2 emissions, surpassing the global aviation industry which accounts for 2.1 per cent.

In the report, Google said that “reaching net-zero emissions by 2030 is an extremely ambitious goal and we know it won’t be easy”, citing that the future of AI and its environmental impact is “complex and difficult to predict”.

Last week, Microsoft’s co-founder, Bill Gates, downplayed AI’s climate impact, saying it would be more of a help than a hindrance. He also said that big tech is “seriously willing” to pay the extra premium to bootstrap clean energy capacity.

At the end of 2023, Google released Gemini, positioned as a competitor to OpenAI’s ChatGPT-4 and the search engine firm’s biggest leap into the AI trend. The tech giant is placing AI at the heart of its new Pixel phones in order to make them “even more helpful”.

John Kirk, CSO at ITG commented: “The insatiable demand for AI adoption is already fuelling a wave of increased emissions, leaving big brands open to scrutiny around their sustainability credentials. Forward thinking organisations will need to look again at the impact their operations are having on the environment and work with partners in the supply chain such as creative agencies to provide a more open and honest account of their activities. Customers now expect both accountability and a clear action plan to offset or reduce emissions, and without it, trust will be lost.”

A new study attempts to disentangle the global interplay of particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone (O3) pollutants, and makes an urgent call for integrated strategies to curb their detrimental impacts on human health and the environment. Its authors say the research unveils the spatial and temporal dynamics of compound pollution, offering a blueprint for a coordinated global response.

Air pollution is a severe risk to human health and the environment, particularly from fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone (O3). Despite global efforts, many cities continue to face significant exposure risks from these pollutants. PM2.5 and O3 originate from similar sources and interact in complex ways, compounding their harmful effects. Addressing these intertwined pollutants requires innovative strategies. In-depth research is needed to develop effective strategies for joint PM2.5 and O3 control.

In this latest study, the research team – from Hubei University of Economics, Nanjing University, and Yangtze University – looked at  the spatial and temporal patterns of PM2.5-O3 compound pollution. Published in Eco-Environment & Health, in April, the research analyzed data from 120 cities worldwide between 2019 and 2022, proposing a framework for synergistic pollution control.

The study appeared to reveal that nearly 50% of cities worldwide are affected by PM2.5-O3 compound pollution, with hotspots in China, Korea, Japan, and India. Significant spatial correlations between PM2.5 and O3 concentrations are apparent, driven by common precursors such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

It seems to be a particular problem with cities in Asia, especially India and China. The study attributes this to the high speed of economic development, with its concomitant anthropogenic emissions, “particularly of VOCs and NOx, which are precursors that promote O3 production”.

The study findings highlight the potential for joint pollution control measures, say the authors. The proposed framework aims to manage emissions from both pollutants simultaneously, leveraging their spatial and chemical interactions. Key findings included the identification of cities with high exposure risks and the demonstration of a positive spatial correlation between PM2.5 and O3 concentrations, suggesting that integrated control strategies could significantly enhance urban air quality and public health.

One recommendation is that areas particularly affected by compound pollution – such as India and China – could focus on strengthening control measures in sectors like transport and industry. More sustainable sources could be sought for processes like petrochemicals, industrial painting, and wood furniture. Another promising avenue would be to “optimize the energy structure of motor vehicles”.

Dr. Chao He, lead author of the study, said, “Our findings underscore the critical need for integrated pollution control strategies. By addressing PM2.5 and O3 together, we can more effectively reduce the health risks and environmental impacts associated with these pollutants.”

The authors believe the proposed synergistic control framework offers a promising approach to managing global air pollution.